Hypertext Technology and the Changing Face of Writing Pedagogy

Cassandra Shott

February 20, 2005

Draft 2

ENG-110 Dr. Hall

Introduction

            Technology has become an integral part of today’s society. Children today are growing up online and the pen is quickly being replaced by the keyboard. By some this is seen as a great tragedy, by others a new frontier. This is certainly an exciting time to enter into pedagogical conversation. One of the technologies that I have found most interesting is hypertext. Hypertext is roughly defined as “the electronic linking of text that we often find on the Internet” (Patterson, 74). Every time you log on to the Internet you view hypertext. While viewing websites and documents on the Internet, occasionally words will be in a different color. The viewer can click on these words and they will lead to a new page containing more information on that word, or some other topic relating to the document. As more and more classrooms have access to computers and the Internet, hypertext is becoming a part of children’s learning experience. My question is how does the use of hypertext technology in the classroom effect current writing pedagogy?

Significance

            We have come to a point in time where literacy is being redefined. It has only occurred twice before in our history. First when humans began to write their oral traditions down on clay or paper. Next when Gutenberg developed the printing press and books became available to the masses. Here we are now at a time when information is a keystroke away and stories need no longer proceed from start to finish. The significance of exploring this new literacy cannot be underestimated, for it is today’s teachers-in-training who will use this technology in the classroom.

This new literacy is known as electronic literacy and it is very widely defined. According to Keith Topping, “electronic literacy refers to literacy activities … which are delivered, supported, accessed, or assessed through computers or other electronic means rather then on paper” (4). With a definition this board, one can see that a great many of our daily activities involve electronic literacy. Electronic literacy demands a different approach from the reader and writer. Hypertext is a facet of new technology that has the capability to radically alter writing pedagogy. This means that teachers will have to learn new ways of teaching which factor in hypermedia. Rather then the narrow definition of reading and writing as a linear process, hypertext allows children to play with text and learn to read and write in a non-sequential format.

It is very important to study this emerging area of pedagogy because we can no longer escape the influence of the Internet and the technology it brings. Children are now exposed to near instantaneous information and dynamic texts online, the key will be to discover how we as teachers can use this new technology to our advantage. It is our purpose as educators to provide children with “an education which will develop their full potential as language users to a level of critical literacy” (Mayher, 45). To fulfill this obligation, it is our duty to understand current technologies and give children the skills that they need to be adults in a technologically advance world. 

Research

            I expected to find little on the subject of hypermedia in the classroom, but much to my surprise, educational journals were brimming with new studies and practical applications for hypermedia. The affects of hypertext use in the classroom have been found to be very positive for the most part. It takes a very innovative teacher to utilize hypertext and make the experience worthwhile to the students. Nancy Patterson is an eight grade teacher who utilizes hypertext in her writing classes. She found that hypertext “helps [students] move beyond their traditional concepts of textuality” (para. 2). This also means that as teachers we need to start moving beyond our own traditional concepts. As children we are taught that a story has sequential parts, a beginning, middle and end. These parts always come in this order and they do not change depending on the reader of the text. Hypertext rejects this finite definition of text. In hypertext a reader chooses how the text should be read according to their interest. There is often an introductory page, but from there one can go in any number of directions and there is no neat middle or end. The idea of reading and creating stories which do not follow a linear pattern is somewhat confusing to many people who have been taught that text has a strict structure. This nonlinear nature of hypertext makes for some very interesting variations on the traditional story book.

Patterson encourages children to think outside of the linear box. She introduces hypertext to her students through a series of assignments which also incorporate traditional eighth grade language arts content. Patterson has her students create various projects utilizing hypertext. These projects require students to view text differently and “wrestle with their existing definition of text” (para. 32). She discovered that students most had a problem with hypertext’s “lack of linearity” (para. 30). In her studies she also found that given enough exposure, nearly all students got past this and developed a “sense of power over the text” (para. 5), which I feel is important for successful writers.

            One of the major effects that hypertext use was found to have on student learning was in the realm of student engagement. Hypertext is by definition interactive and encourages students to become more involved in it than with traditional books. They are constantly choosing what to read next and clicking to get there. Nancy Patterson found that students “participate or transact with hypertext in a way that is generally not possible with print media” (“Hypertext”, 75). From this new transaction many have found that children are very excited about using hypertext. Web publishing is another perk of using hypertext and Patterson found that her students “know their work will be published and they are very motivated to make their {work} worthy of public viewing” (“Weaving”, para. 36). Web publishing gives children an authentic reason to write and this is often inspiring to students. Cameron Richards also suggests that new technologies including hypertext have a “potential to encourage a more active voice in students who may feel intimidated in face-to-face classroom situations” (66). This new voice for many students would be powerful in the classroom. Active and engaged students are what schools have been struggling to develop for decades.

            Another affect that hypertext has had on learning is that it forces teachers to consider new ways of teaching composition. However, this does not mean that teachers need to learn a completely new set of skills. Many of the necessary skills are in use in classrooms today; they just need to be adapted for use in hypertext. Katherine Kellen discovered that “to read hypertext requires concentration; to write it requires mastery of organization” (123). These are both skills which are readily taught in the classroom today, hypertext has the promise of giving children an authentic way to hone these skills. Topping suggests that “the traditional emphasis on detailed knowledge and retention will be replaced by more emphasis on transferable skills in selecting, processing, transforming, evaluating, and add to information” (15). This is a very exciting statement in my opinion. It falls in line with what we are being taught in this class about the nature of learning.

            A big challenge for teachers will come in the form of teaching children to compose on screen. Rather then having children turn in ream after ream of paper, students may only hand in a disk. How will this affect the way that students obtain feedback? Russell conducted a study of hypertext in the classroom and found that “there was little evidence that students were concerned with changes to the normal practice of handing in written or printed materials… but teachers found this fundamental change…difficult to come to terms with” (sec. 3.3). Many teachers are rooted in their old habits and changing these will put them in disequilibrium. Some will adapt, and some may not. For new teachers and teacher candidates, hypertext could be a new and promising addition to the classroom. Another challenge to current pedagogy is in the nature of teaching the writing process. Carol Pope acknowledges that “seeing a student’s writing drafts in process will be harder because they will embed and internalize their own recursive writing process” (92). Whether this will have negative or positive impacts has yet to be seen. Students may need to learn a completely distinct process for working with hypertext.

            The drawbacks to hypertext are two fold. Prior computer knowledge weights heavily on the comfort of students using hypertext. Calcaterra, et. al. conducted a study on thinking styles and the use of hypertext. They found that “high levels of computer expertise were positively related to orientation ability and the preference toward the survey strategy,” both vital when using hypertext (454). Children who have not had much computer experience will be at a disadvantage. However, exposing children early and often to computers may negate this effect. The second drawback to hypertext is along gender lines. A study by Large, et. al. of sixth graders and their web browsing abilities found “that groups of boys are more active on the web than girls” (441). This activity means that boys may have more exposure to hypertext. This exposure leads to comfort with the media. A study among college students using hypertext found that men “fared better with hypertext assignments” while women “continually voic[ed] their belief that they were afraid of computers and their command of them [was] hopeless” (Harris, et.al. 54). This is an extension of the stereotype that women are not as good as men at math and science. Schools have been battling this for years and we must continue. Computers and the Internet are an important part of society and both girls and boys must meet the challenges they bring to reap the rewards they hold.

Possible Solutions

            There can be no doubt that hypertext technology does affect children. It seems to me that whether this affect is positive or negative depends greatly upon how the technology is utilized in the classroom. A very important fact to me was that much of the resistance to new technology comes from the teachers rather then the students. I think that teachers and future teachers need to rise to the challenge that students are putting before us. Hypertext is a reality and a necessity of their world; we need to make sure that they are equipped with the skills they need to navigate these waters. Before we can teach the skills we need to develop them in ourselves. Taking a computer class or two never hurt anyone and it will help to make teachers more aware of the changing face of literacy.

Questions

            My research has opened many more doors for me. The idea of using hypertext in the classroom is newly emerging and the research itself is just starting to blossom. The

One question which is in the forefront for me is that of how to provide access for students from low income families. Daniel Wagner speaks of a “digital divide” which is springing up in our nation (14). He has found that “Americans with less education – those who might benefit the most from the Internet’s education value – are falling further behind in digital access” (14). This is a big problem, especially for small and rural school districts, such as the one I work in. There are families in our town which do not have electricity or running water in their homes, how can we provide then with equal access to computers and Internet technology?

My second questions deals with further applications for hypertext technology in the classroom. All of the articles I came across utilized hypertext in annotating poetry or writing a biography. What about its applications for creative writing? I have seen what can be created with hypertext and it lends itself to creative writing. My best guess is that it would be up to the creative teacher to discover new applications. I am sure that if I continued to such and branched out beyond the peer reviewed journal I would be able to find more information.

Self Analysis

            Over the course of this assignment, I saw many connections between my process and the process that Stephanie Harvey describes in Non Fiction Matters. I began my process with a very general idea of what I was interested in. I was not really passionate for any particular topic at the start of my inquiry. I had come across several articles on using technology in the classroom and it was interesting to me. I branched out from here, finding more resources and getting a general idea of what research was out there. I was operating under Harvey’s idea that “the more information I collect, the greater my desire to find out about the idea” (32). In the course of my research I came across the discussion of hypertext. I have taken many computer classes and I really enjoy both reading and writing in hypertext. When I discovered that many teachers were beginning to use this in their classrooms, the idea ignited something inside of me.

 I realized that hypertext in the classroom would be a much narrower field of inquiry and that I may have more success in researching he topic if I narrowed it down to this. There was still plenty of research available in the field and plenty to discuss. Harvey points out that “the more kids know about a subject, the easier it is to pare it down to a manageable state” (41). This was definitely true for me during this project. I found that with my broad base in distance learning and the amount that I had researched on technology in the classroom I was more able to whittle my question down to the more manageable topic I have currently. The ask the question of how technology influences writing pedagogy would have led to a paper so long that it would be of little use. Focusing on hypertext allowed me to go more in depth and explore the subject fully rather then giving a broad overview.

Many of the articles that I found online discussing hypertext and technology in the classroom were either accounts of an actual teacher using it in their classroom, or a study of children in the classroom. This was important research for me and it meant a whole lot more than if I had read other people’s second hand accounts. Many of the articles had quotes directly from the children involved in the experiments and class projects. These first hand accounts and the opinions of the children had great resonance for me.

I found myself using all of Harvey’s comprehension strategies that she proposes for children. I think that these strategies help all learners, regardless of age. “Synthesizing information” (72) was the most helpful for me in this assignment. I pulled information for a great number of sources and I often had to sit back and give myself a chance to figure out how these sources fit together. My background knowledge also served me quite well while researching this question. I understand computers, computerized education, and hypertext. If I had not had prior knowledge of these topics the research sources I discovered would have been much more difficult to comprehend than they were.

Conclusion

            My research has led me to the conclusion that hypertext is here to stay. I realized that the real question is not will we use hypertext, but instead how will we use hypertext? My self analysis has helped me to discover that no matter how much schooling you have or how old you are, the process of inquiry remains the same.

Works Cited

Calcaterra, Andrea, et al. “Cognitive style, hypermedia navigation, and learning”.

Computers and Education. 44. 2005 : 441-57

Harris, Pamela, et al. “Confronting Hypertext: Exploring Divergent Responses to Digital

Coursework”. The Internet and Higher Education. 1.1. 1998 : 45-57

Kellen, Katherine Nowak. “Expanding Our Reach: Writing HTML Commands to Create

Student Hypertext Writing Projects”. English Journal. January 2002 : 122-24

Large, Andrew, et al. “Gender difference in collaborative Web searching behavior: an

elementary school study”. Information Processing and Management. 38. 2002 : 427-43

Mayher, John S. Uncommon Sense. Portsmouth, NH : Boyton/Cook Publishers, Inc,

1990

Patterson, Nancy. “Hypertext and the Changing Roles of Readers”. English Journal. Nov.

2000 : 74-80

--------. “Weaving Middle School Webs: Hypertext in the Language Arts Classroom”.

KAIROS. 5.1. Spring 2000 : 47 Paragraphs

Pope, C. & Golub, J. “Preparing Tomorrow’s English Language Arts Teacher’s Today: Principles and Practices fro Infusing Technology”. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 1. 2000 : 89-97

Richards, Cameron. “Hypermedia, Internet Communication, and the Challenge of

Redefining Literacy in the Electronic Age”. Language Learning and Technology.

4.2. Sept. 2000 : 59-77

Russell, G. “Elements and Implications of a Hypertext Pedagogy”. Compuuters &

Education. 31. March 1998 : 185-93

Topping, Keith J. “Electronic literacy in school and home: A look into the future”.

Reading Online. 1998 : 28 pages

Wagner, Daniel A. “Literacy, Technological Literacy, and the Digital Divide”.

TechKnowLogia. May/June 2000 : 14-16

Peer Review #1

Amber Christensen

Peer Review of Cassandra Schott

Assignment 3

1.    Reread the assignment description:  where in the draft do you find the writer answering each requirement?  Make at least 2 specific suggestions for developing the essay further.

a.       I feel as though you could define the term “hypertext” a little more thoroughly. In reading the essay, I was constantly confused as exactly what hypertext is. I know that you gave a definition in the first paragraph, but I was still left questioning the meaning.

b.      Another thing that you could expand upon would be naming some of the activities that relate to your subject. You mention two: “Biography Web” and “Poetry Annotation” on page 4, but maybe you could expand and explain how they use hypertext.

2.    What do you think makes the writer’s question a good one for this assignment?  What makes this question worthwhile and significant to you as a future writing teacher?

Well, I think that this is a great question, especially since it’s very similar to the one I chose myself! J As a future teacher, I want to learn all about anything that will enhance the learning experience for my students. I believe that technology will inevitably be something that is here to stay so we need to learn and teach as much as we can so students can be productive members of the community when they are adults.

3.    Consider the scope of the essay:  do you feel the essay needs more—or fewer—voices in the conversation to give you a broad range of alternative views on the question?

I believe that it would be helpful to add drawbacks to using hypertext in the classroom, if there are any (which I’m sure there are). However, you admit that you would like to add this to your paper but couldn’t really find any articles to support this.

You also mention that you found articles with quotes directly from students that have used hypertext in their classes. Maybe adding some of these and discussing them would add another viewpoint.

4.    What new does the writer add to the conversation?  Make at least 1 suggestion for extending the self-reflective portion of the essay, in which the writer reflects on what she’s learned by applying some of Stephanie Harvey’s principles of nonfiction inquiry.

I really like how you connect how your research relates to Harvey’s description of research. I really made a connection with that in my paper also. However, I feel that although you discussed a lot of Harvey’s information regarding your own personal research, it would be great if you could possibly add how Harvey’s book relates directly to your topic regarding hypertext.

Additional comments:

Cassandra, this is a GREAT paper. I felt as though there was a natural flow and most of the information was very detailed. You used many resources and yet I didn’t feel as though your thoughts were missing. I know you felt as though your conclusion could use some more work, I can’t really think of ways to expand it. I always have a hard time with conclusions myself. Maybe just rewording a few sentences would make it flow better. For example, combine the first two sentences: “My research has definitely led to the conclusion that hypertext technology is here to stay.” instead of “Hypertext technology is here to stay. My research has definitely led me to this conclusion”. It just seems less choppy. 

Peer Review #2

1. The writer has divided her paper into each area required by heading each section with

the title of each requirement. I like your introduction.

2. The question you chose was so relevent. Teachers do need to keep current on technology. Like you said in your paper this is the world most students live in today. I had not heard of hypertext, so this was very interesting to read. You made it interesting.

3. I really liked your self analysis. Very interesting how you were able to narrow your topic down to such an interesting topic. You were able to tie this in with Harvey's text very nicely.

4. You have good sources and interesting information. On page 2 you might want to explain what "Biography Web" and "Poetry Annotation" are and how they are used with hypertext. What does "lack of linearity" mean? 

5. This was new information for me. It was a great paper, very easy to read and it flowed nicely. At the end of reading it though, I still really did not know exactly what hypertext is. Maybe you could give a "hypertext for dumbies" explanation for readers like me. Overall, a very well written, informative paper.

Kim   

Changes I Made:

            I made the change to the conclusion that Amber suggested, it helps the flow of the conclusion immensely. Both of my reviews suggested that I clarify the term hypertext. I had made the assumption that most people would know what it was, but apparently this is not the case. I added an expanded definition and explanation of hypertext and hypermedia. The poetry annotation and biography web also confused both reviewers. I did not want to focus too much on these, because they were lesson plans rather then concepts. I deleted the reference to these projects and expanded the discussion of textuality and nonlinear text. Amber suggested that I add a discussion about how hypertext relates to Harvey’s ideas. I thought that this was a bit beyond the scope of the assignment, because the assignment asks for a self analysis, not an analysis of the student’s research. Perhaps I am wrong about this, but that is how I understood it. I did not add this suggestion; the paper was getting far too long already. I conducted more research and found some drawbacks for technology in general which included some references to Internet technologies and hypertext. These do not relate directly to using hypertext for writing purposes, but they could also be potential areas for problems with hypertext in the classroom. I added a section discussing these drawbacks.